Cultural Modification
There is ample evidence for the cultural manipulation and alteration of bone material. One example is the evidence for butchery, as cut marks were found on 1.2 % of the assemblage (30 bones). For example, cut marks can be seen in the upper left area of this cattle forelimb from Figure 9.
In Figure 10 we see clear evidence that a sheep/goat horn core (boney protrusion extending out from the skull) had been cut/sawed off near its base. The butchery intent behind these marks is different; meat removal would have been the target product for processing the cattle ulna, while the horn casing covering the horn core may have been the valued commodity for use as a type of container.
Only one bone tool was found in the assemblage (Figure 11 ). A missing portion at one end shows that it is incomplete. Its function is unknown, but given its shape and size it could have been used as a garment fastener.
The most widespread evidence for cultural modification of animal bones were the burnt remains, consisting of about 3.1% of the assemblage (79 bones). Over 80% of the burnt assemblage (65 bones) was colored black, while other bones had turned brown (3), grey (1), white (2), and undetermined color (8). Bones change color when exposed to heat because their organic components decompose (Shipman et al. 1984:322). Studies conducted by Shipman et al. (1984:309) and Nicholson (1993) have confirmed that burnt bones which turned brown and black are associated with cooler temperatures than those colored white and gray. Given all the variables affecting the ranges of bone color, they should be regarded as only a general guideline as to the temperature that a bone had reached (Shipman et al. 1984:314; Nicholson 1993:425). Most of the bones at Mudaybic represents less intense heat, suggesting meal preparation rather than the elimination of refuse that would produce more grey and white bones. If meat was cooked at the site, perhaps animal portions delivered to the fortress were raw, or at least cured in such a way that it would not spoil. However, the locus of discovery of the burnt bones may not be that of original combustion, as meat could have been cooked prior to its delivery to expectant soldiers.