The Economy of the Karak Plateau: Historical and Archaeological Sources
We can draw upon two main sources of information for the study of the economic life of the Karak plateau in the Ayyubid-Mamluk period. The first is the record of the region (and the other parts of southern Jordan) in contemporary textual sources. This comprises both works in Arabic including historical chronicles, geographical encyclopedias, administrative dictionaries and travellers’ accounts, as well as descriptions given by European writers of the Medieval period. In some cases, it is clear from the texts that the writer had first-hand experience of the area or event he is describing, but at other times writers only report what they have heard second-hand. In addition, the interpretation of texts is made difficult by the fact that they were written over an extended period; some of the most important Arabic geographical works date to the tenth century, and so the information they give may not be relevant to the situation Jordan in the Ayyubid-Mamluk period (1188-1516). The other main resource is the archaeological record. Excavations and field surveys in Jordan have provided much valuable information about settlement patterns and agricultural exploitation. During the Ayyubid-Mamluk period Karak was the administrative center of a large area encompassing most of what is now modern Jordan. Therefore, in looking at the economy of the Karak plateau we also need to consider the contribution made by the neighboring regions of Balqa’, the Jordan valley, the Dead Sea valley and the regions south of the Wādī al-Hasa.
Written sources suggest that Jordan was a well populated rural region in the period from the end of the twelfth to the early fifteenth century. A twelfth-century traveller Ibn Jubayr claims that the Karak region contained 400 villages, whilst a fifteenth-century author, Khalīl al-Zāhirī notes that Balqa’ alone contained 300 villages. We have to be careful not to take such figures too literally, but it is clear that the fertile areas contained numerous rural settlements. This general picture is also reflected in archaeological work on the Karak plateau. The extensive survey of this area undertaken by J. Maxwell Miller, and subsequently by the Karak Resources Project, found that the sedentary population reached one of its highest levels between the twelfth and the early fifteenth century. These levels were exceeded only by the boom in population experienced during the later Byzantine period (mid fifth to early seventh century) and that of the modern period. We can also recover information through analysis of written sources and archaeological evidence concerning the types of crops grown and livestock raised in each region of southern Jordan. The most important crops were wheat and barley, although some areas such as Balqa’ also grew cotton. Smaller quantities of olives and fruits were also grown. Whilst much of the annual product was consumed locally, some was exported to other regions. Written sources tell us that fruit from around Shawbak was sent to the Egyptian capital, Cairo whilst the cotton from Balqa’ was bought by Italian traders operating in the Mediterranean.
Ruined sugar mills at Tawahin al-Sukkar at the south end of the Dead Sea
Economically, the most important agricultural product of the period was the sugar that was produced in the Jordan valley and around the southern and eastern banks of the Dead Sea. The cultivation of sugar cane was probably introduced into the Middle East in the eighth or ninth century. By the twelfth century the production of sugar was a major industry in the Jordan Valley and the Dead Sea area and would have required extensive capital investment as well as large amounts of labor. Numerous mills for the processing of sugar and molasses, such as that of Tawāhīn al-Sukkar at the south end of the Dead Sea have been located. Sugar was also grown on the Palestine coast near Acre, as well as in the Nile Delta in Egypt and on the banks of the Euphrates in northern Syria. A fourteenth-century Italian merchant Balducci Pegolotti records in a trade manual that the sugar of Karak and Shawbak (presumably referring to the mills around the Dead Sea) was regarded as the fourth best available in the Mediterranean region. This elevated status was not to last, however. During the fourteenth century the Mamluk-owned mills came under heavy competition from cheaper sugar made in Cyprus, and by the fifteenth century the industry in the Jordan valley and Dead Sea area had virtually ceased to operate.
Major trade routes passed through the Karak plateau and these also had an impact upon the economic life of the region. Most important was the King’s Highway which passed south through the plateau and near to Karak itself. Not only did commercial traffic make use of this route, but also the annual pilgrimage caravan coming from Damascus. The account of the hajj by a fourteenth-century traveller, Ibn Battūta records that pilgrims stopped at the village of al-Thaniyya near Karak in order to buy supplies before continuing the journey south. Another stop for provisions was made in the south-eastern town of Ma`ān. These stops provided a valuable opportunity for local farmers and traders to sell their produce. Although we do not have similar information about the more frequent trade caravans, it seems likely that the inhabitants of the Karak plateau benefited from the sale of foodstuffs to these travellers as well. This picture of increased economic activity near the trade routes is also seen in the archaeological evidence. It is the sites near the King’s Highway, or in near proximity to the town of Karak that report the largest numbers of expensive imported pottery. On more remote sites, the farmers appear to have made more use of unglazed pottery and other items manufactured within their local area.
Roman cistern at Ziza (Jiza) in central Jordan used by merchants and pilgrims during the Islamic period.